Pooled analysis of five multidisciplinary interventions gave low‐quality evidence that these may reduce the risk of heart failure readmissions (RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.92 NNTB 11, 95% CI 7 to 44). We were able to pool only two clinic‐based studies, and the moderate‐quality evidence suggested that there is probably little or no difference in heart failure readmissions between clinic‐based interventions and usual care (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.18). Moderate‐quality evidence suggests that they probably reduce heart failure readmissions (RR 0.64, 95% CI 0.53 to 0.78 NNTB 8, 95% CI 6 to 13). We pooled data on heart failure readmissions from 12 case management studies. Pooled analysis of eight multidisciplinary studies gave moderate‐quality evidence that these probably reduce all‐cause mortality (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.54 to 0.83 NNTB 17, 95% CI 12 to 32). We pooled all seven clinic‐based studies, with low‐quality evidence suggesting they may make little to no difference to all‐cause mortality. Twenty‐six case management RCTs reported all‐cause mortality, with low‐quality evidence indicating that these may reduce all‐cause mortality (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.68 to 0.90 NNTB 25, 95% CI 17 to 54). Based on this limited evidence, the number needed to treat for an additional beneficial outcome (NNTB) is 12 (95% CI 9 to 126). Pooled analysis gave a risk ratio (RR) of 0.46 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.23 to 0.95), but the very low‐quality evidence means we are uncertain of the effect on mortality due to heart failure. Only two multidisciplinary‐intervention RCTs reported mortality due to heart failure.

Seven RCTs were in upper‐middle‐income countries, the rest were in high‐income countries. The included studies were predominantly in an older population, with most studies reporting a mean age of between 67 and 80 years. Twenty‐eight were case management interventions, seven were clinic‐based models, nine were multidisciplinary interventions, and three could not be categorised as any of these. We found 22 new RCTs, so now include 47 RCTs (10,869 participants).

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